Paul Vargas at Carlisle

Intriguingly, at least one of the Puerto Rican students studying at Carlisle Indian School was identified as someone of Amerindian descent. Named Paul Vargas, he was apparently from Humacao, Puerto Rico. Entering Carlisle in 1910, Vargas apparently was only enrolled temporarily, since he left the school in the same year. Nonetheless, one wonders how Vargas saw himself and if he would have agreed with the school's characterization of him as someone of "Carribee Indian" descent.

Survival of Yuca Culture in Puerto Rico

Whilst perusing "Survival of la cultura de la yuca in Puerto Rico" by Juan Manuel Delgado, or at least the incomplete translation of his much longer article, as part of Bread Made From Yuca, edited by Jane Gregory Rubin and Ariana Donalds, one is reminded of the central importance of yuca for precolonial Puerto and even much of Puerto Rico during the last 500 years. Delgado illustrates this with numerous examples from folklore, medicinal uses, spiritual and religious practices that seem to at least partly draw from the indigenous heritage. Even work parties and sung rosary prayers are compared with the indigenous areytos as practices which include, or once included, yuca as part of it. Intriguingly, in at least one region of the island, yuca was also associated with Saint Antonio of Padua. This is intriguing since archival sources also support the idea of Saint Patrick as a protector of yuca from worm infestation, at least according to Jose Colomban Rosario's thesis on the jibaro. 

Ancient Caciques of Jamaica

Whilst perusing Bachiller y Morales on indigenous Cuba and the Taino language, we came across references to aboriginal Jamaica. Apparently, back in 1607, Gregorio Garcia, who sought to uncover the origins of Amerindian peoples, wrote that the last three caciques of Jamaica were Beroica, Bemboroica, and Abemberoica. It would be fascinating to find Garcia's source for these names of Jamaican caciques. From the testament of Diego Mendez, we know of Ameyro and Huareo as caciques of Jamaica at the time Columbus was shipwrecked there. For caciques after or before, we are lost and would love to know more. Sadly, attempting to look this up only led us to Rafinesque, who tried to date these aforementioned Jamaican caciques to the 1400s. Rafinesque also attempted to historicize the traditions and myths of Ramon Pane on Hispaniola with linguistic and historical evidence to reconstruct the precolonial past of the West Indies (unconvincingly, we might add). More verifiable are the 8 or so caciques of Jamaica listed in The Jamaica Reader: History, Culture, Politics: Aguacadiba, Ameyao, Anaya, Guayguata, Huareo, Maynoa, Oristan, and Vaquabo. The first of these is mentioned as a place by Diego Mendez. 

Taino Words

The following are words from the indigenous Taino language of the Greater Antilles. Largely derived from Las Casas and Oviedo, chroniclers who spent a significant time in the Caribbean during the 1500s, they both included several words from the Taino tongue in their works. Unsurprisingly, toponyms, flora and fauna, and sometimes names of caciques frequently appeared in their works. The words used below also include some from Puerto Rico's rivers and place names, as well as Abbad y Lasierra. But the vast majority are derived from Oviedo and Las Casas, particularly the latter's Historia Apologética.

Amaguey (valley and river)

Hami (river)

Zapita (river)

xoxenes (mosquitoes)

Bahabonico (river)

xaguey (cisterns?)

guayagas (roots grown and used to make a type of bread)

batata

bejucos (vines/cords)

Haina (rio)

Iguamuco (provincia)

Banique

Hatiey (another province)

Atibonico (Artibonite River)

Zahay (provincia), puerto de golfo de Xaragua

Guacayarima (anus of island)

Camin (rio)

Careibana (area on a plain)

Cayguani

ciba (stone)

streams in Cibao area: Xagua, Guaba, Guanahoma, Baho, Yaqui, Xanique, Agmina, Maho, Paramaho, Guavobin

guabina (type of fish)

dahos, zages, diahacas (types of fish consumed)

teti (fish caught in streams)

xaibas (crabs)

hicotea (turtle)

Buenicun (stream in Cibao area)

Coactinucum (another stream)

Cibu (another stream)

Maimon and Yuma: river names

Dahahon (river name)

Magua (Vega)

higuacas (large parrots)

xaxabis (medium-sized parrots)

quemi (one of the rodents of Hispaniola)

mohies (other type of rat)

curies (other type of rodent consumed)

iguana

aji 

manati

yuca, yucabia (plant)

aje

lerenes and yahubias (other types of roots)

guayaros: root in the monte

guariqueten

cibucam (type of manga)

hibiz (sifter)

libuza (cuero used to grate finer yuca)

hien: poisonous juice from yuca

annona (type of fruit)

pitahaya, guanabana

tuna (type of fruit)

hicacos (type of fruit)

ceiba tree

caoban tree: good wood used for tables

caimito: type of tree

guazimas: type of tree

hibuero tree

cupey tree

guao tree (in eastern Hispaniola; used to make poison for arrows according to Las Casas)

manibari (type of yerba)

van (type of yerba)

xeyticaco

buticaco

mahite

taguaguas (earrings)

matunheri

cabuya

hupia

hutia

carey

dita

cohoba

canoa

cazabi

areito

batey

hequeti (uno)

yamoca (dos)

canocum (tres)

yamoncobre (cuatro)

cemi

Lucayo

manicato

caribes

Cibago

Higuey

Saona

Jamaica

Borinquen

Quisqueya

maraca

xaoxao

Yaquimo

Hanyguayaba

jagua

Cacibajagua

bixa

macana

Ciguayo

nitaino

naboria

cocuyo

bahari

Guamiquina

daca

cayo

Zuania

Agueybana

Cayacoa

coa

cimarron

hamaca

conuco

tabaco

Haiti

Cuba

buren

eracra

guayacan

guayaba

Guaba

mamey

Coaybay

behique

bohio

caney

yuca

yucayeque

barbacoa

nahe

cacona

caona

nagua

guanin

maiz

mani

Xaragua

Magua

Maguana

mohuy (animal)

cigua (tree)

damahagua tree (used for cords)

daguita (string)

azuba tree

yayama (pineapple)

yayagua

papaya

boniama

cauallos

hobos tree

higuero tree

guama tree

macagua tree

guiabara tree

gaguey tree

sibucan (tree)

guao: root that's poisonous and used by Indian women of Hispaniola to whiten their skill

guazabara (skirmish, conflict, fight)

guatiao (brother, friend)

datihao (my master, or one named like me (Oviedo)

tabonuco (type of glue from a tree), also called tabunuco

guabiniquinax (type of hutia on Cuba)

ayre (another animal in Cuba) 

goeiza

sablao (finer type of cazabi/casabe)

anaiboa (flower of yucca plant)

ana (flower)

imocona (type of food)

Loquillo: indio alzado and cacique

Bayamon rio: area described as center for conuco agriculture in 1580s

Toa (rio in Puerto Rico)

Guayanes River (once heavily populated area in time of indios in PR)

Abacoa (river, Arecibo, in Puerto Rico)

Guataca (river in PR)

Camuy (river in PR)

Guaurabo (river in PR)

Guanajibo/Guaynabo (river in PR)

Guayanilla (rio in PR)

Taiaboa (rio in PR)

Jacagua (rio in PR)

Cuamo (rio in PR): River had fountain/source with area featuring healing bath used by INdians, since stone with figures made by Indians found on it)

Guayama (river in PR)

Abey (rio in PR)

Maunabo (rio in PR)

Humacao (rio in PR)

Dagua/Daguao (rio in PR)

Maga (tree used to make tables, seats, etc.)

capa (tree used to make boats, etc)

ucar (tree)

anon (tree)

quibey (yerba with poisonous features)

Inabon (rio in PR)

dautia/autia (jutia in PR)

Guamani (puerto in PR)

Bieque/Vieque (island)

Yabucoa

Isla de Yautias

yaguas (used for houses)

buhios (bohios, spelling of Abbad y la Sierra)

cayuco (small canoe for rivers and short voyages, Abbad y La Sierra)

duho (stool, banco, silla)

athebeane nequen 

hicos: cords of a hamaca (Oviedo)

bagua (mar, ocean, sea)

guaraguaos (type of bird)

comejen/comixen

haquetas (smaller shark or fish)

Escudo de San Luis del Caney

Apparently, El Caney, a pueblo de indios that survived for several centuries in colonial Cuba, had a coat of arms. It is reproduced in Crónicas de Santiago de Cuba by Emilio Bacardí y Moreau.  

Samuel de Champlain's Maps of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico

Whilst perusing the internet at night looking for sources on Xaragua, Haiti, and the indigenous Caribbean, as one is wont to do, we came across some beautiful maps of Samuel de Champlain. Champlain, who traveled to Hispaniola and Puerto Rico in the beginning of the 17th century, is one of the few cartographers to include images of Native American peoples inhabiting the Greater Antilles at this time. While one must him very carefully as a source, it is intriguing to note that de Champlain wrote about "Indians" on Hispaniola who were fond of the French. He similarly noted the presence of "Indians" in San Juan, Puerto Rico. 

Samuel de Champlain's beautiful maps and illustrations also include the area around La Yaguana (Hispaniola) as well as scenes like Monte Cristi. It's unfortunately that more beautifully illustrated works have not survived showing Hispaniola and Puerto Rico in the early 17th century. Furthermore, based on his map, Yaquimo must have been located closer to what later became Aquin in the French colonial period. This seems to also have been the case in Exquemelin's account, which associated Aquin and Yaquimo together. 

Athebeane Nequen

One term from the Taino language of Haiti-Quisqueya which fascinates us is athebeane nequen. Used for the wife of a deceased cacique buried alive with her spouse, the term's origins are complex and confusing. Appearing in Oviedo's chronicle and, as a slightly different term (rendered as a single word, Guanahattabenecheuà) in the works of Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, the word is clearly linked to central concepts of caciques, funeral rites for the social elites of the Taino world, and gender relations. According to Oviedo, the athebeane nequen was the most beautiful wife of the cacique, bured alive with her. Expanding further, Encisco (according to Ricardo Alegria's MA thesis on the Taino cacicazgo) wrote that this wife would enter the open grave of a cacique after the period of mourning ended, right before the grave was closed again. Moreover, Peter Martyr d'Anghiera described this custom, at least in the case of Behechio of Xaragua, as including the favorite necklaces, ornaments, water and casabe. Thus, one can presume the interment of live wives of powerful caciques was accompanied by some specific type of ritual.

This leads us to our next question. What is the etymology of the term used by Oviedo and Anghiera? At first, we thought there might be a link to the cemi, Atabey, or Attabeira. Said to have been the mother of Yocahu and to possess 5 names, one can assume she was an important cemi associated with motherhood. According to Arrom's translation of  Ramón Pané, this cemi's name might be connected to the word for mother and the word for water. Was the title, as rendered by Oviedo, really a name for a wife of a cacique whose self-sacrifice was seen as related to Atabey? Of course, there are other theories. Douglas Taylor, for example, noted that in the Island Carib language, the title could have been rendered as something equivalent to the wife that goes down/sets (as in the Sun and the Moon). However, Taylor noted that the term, as rendered by Oviedo, is inconsistent with this. In addition, we even explored the chances of the nequen part of the name being similar to the word for river or stream or even as a shorted form of henequen. Neither theory can be demonstrated, although we know from Martyr d'Anghiera that names referring to rivers were sometimes used for caciques, as in Duyheiniquem for Behechio of Xaragua. Thus, the term's origin remains unclear. 

Despite these problems, we think the term for this special type of wife buried alive may have been connected to the cemi, Atabey. Since the cult of cemis ad the close association with the power and authority of caciques seems likely, it would not be a surprise for the unique burial of a living wife of a cacique to be associated with a cemi. If Atabey was the mother of Yocahu, a central cemi at least in Hispaniola, perhaps it is no surprise that a athebeane nequen is a title referring to the cemis. Naturally, firmer evidence must be found, and perhaps other examples of names or titles linked to the cemis might be revelatory here.